Chemical Substitutes from Agricultural and Industrial By-Products

Preface xv About the Editors xvii 1 A Glance on Biorefinery of Chemical Substitutes from Agriculture and Industrial By-products 1 Suraini Abd-Aziz, Misri Gozan, Mohamad F. Ibrahim, Lai-Yee Phang, and Mohd A. Jenol 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Analysis of Feedstocks for Composition and Potential for Chemical Substitutes 3 1.3 Potential Application of Chemical Substitute Extracted from Selected Agricultural Wastes and Industrial By-products 9 1.4 Conclusions 13 2 Antioxidants from Agricultural Wastes and their Potential Applications 19 Mohd A. Jenol, Yazmin Hussin, Pei H. Chu, Suraini Abd-Aziz, and Noorjahan B. Alitheen 2.1 Introduction to Antioxidants and their Usages 19 2.2 Sources of Antioxidants 21 2.3 Alternative Antioxidants Sources from Agricultural Wastes 22 2.4 Extraction of Antioxidants from Selected Agricultural Waste 22 2.5 Potential Applications of Antioxidants Extracted from Selected Agricultural Wastes 30 2.6 Future Direction of Antioxidants from AgricultureWastes 34 2.7 Conclusions 35 3 Lemongrass Oleoresin in Food Flavoring 39 Madihah Md Salleh, Shankar Ramanathan, and Rohaya Mohd Noor 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Types of Lemongrass and Their Components 40 3.3 Potential Chemical Substitutes from Lemongrass 42 3.4 Characteristics and Properties of Oleoresin 44 3.5 Lemongrass Oleoresin Composition and Function 44 3.6 Extraction Technique of Lemongrass Oleoresin 46 3.7 Application of Lemongrass Oleoresin as Food Flavoring 51 3.8 Oleoresin Prospect 53 3.9 Conclusions 53 4 Nanocarbon Material and Chemicals from Seaweed for Energy Storage Components 59 Tirto Prakoso, Hary Devianto, Heri Rustamaji, Praswasti PDK Wulan, and Misri Gozan 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Source of Seaweed 62 4.3 Potential Material Substitute from Seaweed 64 4.4 Utilization of Seaweed-based Material for Energy Storage Component 76 4.5 Future Prospects and Challenges 82 4.6 Conclusions 83 5 Spent Mushroom Substrate as Alternative Source for the Production of Chemical Substitutes 87 Vikineswary Sabaratnam, Chia Wei Phan, Hariprasath Lakshmanan, and Jegadeesh Raman 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Spent Mushroom Substrate (SMS) as Source of Bulk Enzymes 90 5.3 Various Challenges and Future Prospects in the Use of SMS 94 5.4 Conclusions 97 6 Essential Oil from Pineapple Wastes 103 Mohamad F. Ibrahim, Nurshazana Mohamad, Mariam J. M. Fairus, Mohd A. Jenol, and Suraini Abd-Aziz 6.1 Introduction 103 6.2 PineappleWastes 104 6.3 Pineapple Essential Oil 105 6.4 Extraction of Essential Oils 106 6.5 Extracted Essential Oil Compounds 112 6.6 Conclusions 117 7 Chicken Feather as a Bioresource to Produce Value-added Bioproducts 123 Kai L. Sim, Radin S. R. Yahaya, Suriana Sabri, and Lai-Yee Phang 7.1 Introduction 123 7.2 Valorization of Chicken Feathers 124 7.3 Bioprocessing of Chicken Feathers into Chemical Substitutes 128 7.4 Molecular Approaches to Improve Keratinolytic Propensity of Native Host 132 7.5 Molecular Approaches to Improve Recombinant Keratinase Production and Characteristics 135 7.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives 138 7.7 Conclusions 140 8 Bio-bleaching Agents Used for Paper and Pulp Produced from the Valorization of Corncob, Wheat Straw, and Bagasse 145 Kanya C. H. Alifia, Tjandra Setiadi, Ramaraj Boopathy, Hendro Risdianto, Muhammad Irfan, and Ibnu M. Hidayatullah 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 Characteristics of Biomass Substrate for Bio-bleaching Enzyme Production 146 8.3 Microbial Sources of Bio-bleaching Enzymes 148 8.4 Bio-bleaching Enzymes and Their Usage in Pulp and Paper Industry 150 8.5 Bioprocessing of AgriculturalWastes for Bio-bleaching Enzyme Production 154 8.6 Techno-economic Evaluation 159 8.7 Challenges and Future Outlooks 165 8.8 Conclusions 167 9 Recovery of Industrially Useful Enzymes from Rubber Latex Processing By-products 173 Tan W. Kit, Yong Y. Seng, Siti N. Azlan, Nurulhuda Abdullah, and Fadzlie W. F. Wong 9.1 Introduction 173 9.2 Processing of Natural Rubber Latex for the Production of Rubber Products 175 9.3 General Characteristics of Plant-derived Lysozymes and Chitinases 177 9.4 Conventional and Alternative Activity Assays for Lysozymes and Chitinases 178 9.5 Potential Application of Plant-derived Lysozymes and Chitinases 182 9.6 Potential Strategy for Recovering Lysozymes and Chitinases from NRL 182 9.7 Conclusions 187 10 Sago Wastes as a Feedstock for Biosugar, Precursor for Chemical Substitutes 193 Mohd A. Jenol, Muhd N. Ahmad, Dayang S. A. Adeni, Micky Vincent, and Nurashikin Suhaili 10.1 Introduction 193 10.2 Current Status of Sago Starch Industry 194 10.3 SagoWastes Biomass 196 10.4 Bioconversion of SagoWastes into Biosugars and its Derivative Precursors 200 10.5 Bioprocessing SagoWastes Fermentable Sugar for Chemicals Substitute 202 10.6 Challenges and Prospect of SagoWastes Biorefinery 207 10.7 Conclusions 209 11 Biofertilizer and Other Chemical Substitutes from Sugarcane By-products 213 Is Fatimah, Ganjar Fadillah, Tatang S. Julianto, Rudy Syahputra, and Habibi Hidayat 11.1 Introduction 213 11.2 Sugarcane By-products Conversion into Biofertilizer 216 11.3 Sugarcane Bagasse as Raw Material for Soil Improver: Phenol Degradation 218 11.4 Sugarcane By-products Conversion into Chemical 223 11.5 Sugarcane By-product as Material for Biocomposites 227 11.6 Future Perspective of Sugarcane By-products Conversion in the Sugarcane Industrial Cycle 228 11.7 Future Usage and Applications of Sugarcane By-products 229 11.8 Conclusions 230 12 Cocoa Butter Substitute from Tengkawang (Shorea stenoptera) 235 Muhammad A. Darmawan, Suraini Abd-Aziz, and Misri Gozan 12.1 Introduction 235 12.2 Composition and Characteristics of Tengkawang Butter 237 12.3 Traditional Treatment Process 241 12.4 Extraction and Purification Process of Tengkawang 242 12.5 Economic Feasibility Based on Process Simulation 244 12.6 Benefits and Future Outlook of Tengkawang Butter 249 12.7 Conclusions 250 13 Bio-succinic Acid Production from Biomass and their Applications 255 Abdullah A. I. Luthfi, Jian P. Tan, Wen X. Woo, Nurul A. Bukhari, and Hikmah B. Hariz 13.1 Introduction 255 13.2 Valorization of Biomass to Bio-succinic Acid 257 13.3 Bio-succinic Acid as Fermentative Metabolite 260 13.4 Purification and Recovery of Succinic Acid 267 13.5 Application of Bio-succinic Acid 272 13.6 Conclusions 273 14 Furfural and Derivatives from Bagasse and Corncob 279 Muryanto Muryanto, Yanni Sudiyani, Andre F. P. Harahap, and Misri Gozan 14.1 Introduction 279 14.2 Furfural as a Building Block Material 280 14.3 Furfural Derivatives 281 14.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass as Raw Material for Furfural Production 285 14.5 Furfural Production 288 14.6 Techno-economical Aspect 295 14.7 Future Trends 296 14.8 Conclusions 297 15 Levulinic and Formic Acids from Rice Straw and Sugarcane Bagasse 301 Jabosar R. H. Panjaitan and Misri Gozan 15.1 Introduction 301 15.2 Potential of Biomass Source for the Production of Levulinic and Formic Acids 304 15.3 Levulinic Dan Formic Acids Formation 306 15.4 Pretreatment and Production Technologies 306 15.5 Purification Technologies 309 15.6 Economic Feasibilities 312 15.7 Case Studies 313 15.8 Conclusions 314 16 Cellulase as Biocatalyst Produced from Agricultural Wastes 319 Wichanee Bankeeree, Suraini Abd-Aziz, Sehanat Prasongsuk, Pongtharin Lotrakul, Syahriar NMM Ibrahim, and Hunsa Punnapayak 16.1 Introduction 319 16.2 Cellulases Diversity 320 16.3 Cellulase-producing Microorganisms 323 16.4 Cellulase Properties 325 16.5 Strategies to Improve Cellulase Production 326 16.6 Techno-economic Analysis to Produce Biofuels 331 16.7 Conclusions 332 17 Conversion of Glycerol Derived from Biodiesel Production to Butanol and 1,3-Propanediol 337 Prawit Kongjan, Alissara Reungsang, and Sureewan Sittijunda 17.1 Introduction 337 17.2 Crude Glycerol Characteristics and Impurities 338 17.3 Bioconversion of Crude Glycerol into Butanol and 1,3-Propanediol 340 17.4 Purification and Recovery of 1,3-Propanediol and Butanol 343 17.5 Applications of 1,3-Propanediol and Butanol 346 17.6 Challenges and Future Perspective 348 17.7 Conclusions 349 18 Sustainability of Chemical Substitutes from Agricultural and Industrial By-products 355 Lai-Yee Phang, Suraini Abd-Aziz, Misri Gozan, and Mohamad F. Ibrahim 18.1 Introduction 355 18.2 Sustainable Development Strategies, Policies and Regulations in Indonesia and Malaysia 358 18.3 Case Study 1: Techno-economic Analysis for the Production of Cellulase 360 18.4 Case Study 2: Techno-economic Analysis for the Production of Biofertilizer 364 18.5 Challenges and Market Opportunities 368 18.6 Conclusions 369 References 370 Index 375