Monitoring for Health Hazards at Work

List of Figures xviii Preface xxv Acknowledgements xxvii Units and Abbreviations xxviii Part 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Occupational Hygiene and Risk Assessment 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Hazard and Risk 8 1.3 Risk Assessment 9 1.4 The Stages of a Risk Assessment 10 1.4.1 Identify the Hazard 10 1.4.2 Decide Who Might Be Affected and How 11 1.4.3 Evaluate the Risks 11 1.4.4 Take Preventative and Protective Measures 13 1.4.5 Record the Significant Findings 14 1.4.6 Review the Assessment Regularly and Revise It If Necessary 14 1.5 Who Should Carry Out Risk Assessment? 15 References and Further Reading 15 Chapter 2 Identifying Hazards 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Identifying Hazards 18 2.3 Example of Hazard Identification 20 2.4 Conclusions Arising from a Hazard Assessment 21 References and Further Reading 21 Chapter 3 Exposure, Exposure Routes and Exposure Pathways 23 3.1 Introduction 23 3.2 Exposure Routes 23 3.3 Exposure Pathways 26 3.4 Measuring Exposure 27 3.5 Biological Monitoring 28 3.6 Exposure Assessment: What the Legislation Requires 29 3.7 Conclusions 30 References and Further Reading 31 Chapter 4 The Exposure Context 32 4.1 Context for Measurement 32 4.2 Sources of Hazardous Substances 33 4.3 Dispersion Through the Workroom 34 4.4 Receptor 36 4.5 Jobs and Tasks 37 4.6 Conclusion 38 References and Further Reading 38 Chapter 5 Modelling Exposure 39 5.1 Introduction 39 5.2 Worst‐Case Models 40 5.3 Control Banding and COSHH Essentials 42 5.3.1 Worked Example 44 5.4 Screening Tools Used for Regulation of Chemicals in Europe 46 5.4.1 ECETOC TRA 46 5.4.2 Stoffenmanager.nl 47 5.4.3 Worked Example 48 5.4.4 Overall Reliability of These Tools 49 5.5 The Advanced REACH Tool 49 5.5.1 Bayesian Statistics 49 5.5.2 The ART 50 5.5.3 Worked Example 51 5.6 Conclusions and Prospects 52 References and Further Reading 52 Chapter 6 Why Measure? 54 6.1 Introduction 54 6.2 Reasons for Undertaking Monitoring 54 6.2.1 To Support a Risk Assessment 54 6.2.2 To Assess Compliance with an OEL 55 6.2.3 To Make a Comparison with Existing Data 55 6.2.4 To Provide Baseline Information on the Exposure Distributions Within a Plant 56 6.2.5 Supporting Information for Registration Submissions Under the REACH Regulations 56 6.2.6 Containment Capability Studies 57 6.2.7 To Underpin a Research Study 58 References and Further Reading 58 Chapter 7 How to Carry Out a Survey 59 7.1 Introduction 59 7.2 Planning the Survey 59 7.3 Workplace Monitoring 61 7.4 Monitoring Strategies 63 7.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 66 References and Further Reading 68 Chapter 8 Analysis of Measurement Results 69 8.1 Introduction 69 8.2 Dealing with Variability in Measurement Results 69 8.3 Summary Statistics and Data Presentation 71 8.4 Testing Compliance 74 8.4.1 Worked Example 76 8.5 Other Software Tools to Aid Data Analysis 78 References and Further Reading 78 Chapter 9 Introduction to Control 80 9.1 Introduction 80 9.2 Specific Control Measures 81 9.2.1 Elimination 82 9.2.2 Substitution 82 9.2.3 Total Enclosure 83 9.2.4 Technological Solutions 84 9.2.5 Segregation 84 9.2.6 Partial Enclosure 85 9.2.7 Local Ventilation 85 9.2.8 General Ventilation 86 9.2.9 Personal Protective Equipment 87 9.3 The Effectiveness of Control Measures 87 References and Further Reading 88 Chapter 10 The Importance of Good Records and How to Write a Survey Report 89 10.1 Record, Educate and Influence 89 10.2 Measurement Records 90 10.3 Survey Reports 92 10.3.1 General Principles of Writing a Good Report 92 10.3.2 Report Structure 93 10.3.3 Common Pitfalls and Administrative Points 96 References and Further Reading 96 Chapter 11 Risk Assessment 98 11.1 Introduction 98 11.2 Identify All Hazardous Substances or Agents 100 11.3 Identify the Likely Levels of Exposure 100 11.4 Identify All Persons Likely to be Exposed 102 11.5 Assess Whether the Exposures are Likely to Cause Harm 102 11.6 Consider Elimination or Substitution 103 11.7 Define Additional Control Measures Necessary to Reduce the Harm to Acceptable Levels 104 References and Further Reading 105 Chapter 12 Risk Communication 107 12.1 Introduction 107 12.2 Risk Perception 108 12.3 Trust 110 12.4 Principles of Good Risk Communication 110 12.4.1 Know Your Constraints Before You Start 111 12.4.2 Define the Role of the Communicator 111 12.4.3 Research Your Audience 111 12.4.4 Timing 112 12.5 The Presentation 112 12.6 Communicating Risk 114 12.7 Quantitative Risk Assessment to Aid Risk Communication 115 References and Further Reading 117 Part 2 Hazardous Substances 119 Chapter 13 An Introduction to Hazardous Substances 121 13.1 Introduction 121 13.2 The Complexities of Modern Workplaces 122 13.3 The Top Five Hazardous Carcinogens 123 13.4 Substances of Concern for the Respiratory System 123 13.5 Pesticides, Pharmaceuticals and Other Biologically Active Substances 124 13.6 Organic Chemicals 125 13.7 Summary 126 References and Further Reading 126 Chapter 14 Dust, Particles and Fibrous Aerosols 128 14.1 Introduction 128 14.2 Airborne Particulate Matter 128 14.3 Fibres 131 14.4 Measurement of Airborne Particulate and Fibre Concentrations 133 14.4.1 Filters 134 14.4.2 Filter Holders and Sampling Heads 135 14.5 Measurement of Flow Rate 139 14.6 Pumps 141 14.7 Direct‐Reading Aerosol Monitors 142 14.8 Flow Rate Measurement Using a Rotameter or Electronic Flow Calibrator by Using the Soap Bubble Method 144 14.9 The Measurement of Inhalable Airborne Dust 146 14.9.1 Equipment Required 146 14.9.2 Method 147 14.9.3 Calculations 149 14.9.4 Possible Problems 149 14.10 The Measurement of Airborne Respirable Dust by Using a Cyclone Sampler 150 14.10.1 Equipment Required 150 14.10.2 Method 150 14.10.3 Calculations 151 14.10.4 Possible Problems 151 14.11 Measurement of Nanoparticles 151 14.12 The Sampling and Counting of Airborne Asbestos Fibres 152 14.12.1 Equipment Required for Sampling 154 14.12.2 Method for Sampling 154 14.12.3 Fibre Counting and Generating Concentration Data 154 14.12.4 Method of Evaluation 155 14.12.5 Calculations 156 14.12.6 Possible Problems 157 14.13 The Choice of Filter and Filter Holder to Suit a Specific Dust, Fume or Mist 157 14.14 To Trace the Behaviour of a Dust Cloud by Using a Tyndall Beam 159 14.14.1 Equipment Required 159 14.14.2 Method 160 Note 160 References and Further Reading 160 Chapter 15 Gases and Vapours 163 15.1 Introduction 163 15.2 Collection Devices 167 15.2.1 Adsorption Methods 167 15.2.2 Adsorbent Tubes 169 15.2.3 Passive Samplers 171 15.2.4 Colorimetric Detector Tubes 172 15.3 Containers 174 15.4 Direct‐Reading Instruments 174 15.5 To Measure Personal Exposure to Solvent Vapours Using an Adsorbent Tube 176 15.5.1 Equipment Required 176 15.5.2 Method 177 15.5.3 Calculations 177 15.5.4 Example 178 References and Further Reading 179 Chapter 16 Bioaerosols 181 16.1 Introduction 181 16.2 Classification of Microorganisms 182 16.3 Viruses 183 16.4 Bacteria 184 16.5 Moulds and Yeasts 186 16.6 Allergens 187 16.7 Principles of Containment 187 16.8 Monitoring Bioaerosols 188 16.9 Measurement of Endotoxins and Allergens 192 16.10 Interpretation of Sample Results 193 References and Further Reading 194 Chapter 17 Dermal and Inadvertent Ingestion Exposure 196 17.1 Introduction 196 17.2 Occupations Where Dermal Exposure is Important 197 17.3 Local and Systemic Effects 198 17.4 How Do We Know If Dermal Exposure is an Issue? 199 17.5 What Do We Measure? 200 17.6 Methods for Dermal Exposure Measurement 202 17.7 Sampling Strategy 205 17.8 Liquids and Solids 207 17.9 Biomonitoring and Modelling of Dermal Exposure 208 17.10 From Exposure to Uptake 209 17.11 Controlling Dermal Exposure 210 17.12 Inadvertent Ingestion Exposure 211 References and Further Reading 214 Chapter 18 Human Biomonitoring 217 18.1 Introduction 217 18.2 Selection of a Suitable HBM Method 218 18.3 Examples of HBM 220 18.4 Study Protocols 221 18.5 Interpretation of HBM Data 222 References and Further Reading 224 Part 3 Physical Agents 225 Chapter 19 An Introduction to Physical Agents 227 19.1 Introduction 227 19.2 Physical Agents in the Workplace 228 19.3 Noise and Vibration 229 19.4 Thermal Environment 230 19.5 Ionising and Non‐ionising Radiation 231 References and Further Reading 232 Chapter 20 Noise 233 20.1 Introduction 233 20.2 Frequency 234 20.3 Duration 236 20.4 Occupational Exposure Limits 237 20.5 Pressure and Magnitude of Pressure Variation 238 20.6 Equipment Available 239 20.7 Sound Level Metres and Personal Noise Dosimeters 239 20.8 Personal Noise Dosimeters 243 20.9 Calibration 245 20.10 Collecting Noise Measurements 247 20.10.1 Using an SLM 247 20.10.2 Results 248 20.11 To Measure Workplace Noise Using a PND 249 20.11.1 Using a PND 249 20.11.2 Results 250 20.11.3 Possible Complications 250 20.12 To Measure the Spectrum of a Continuous Noise by Octave Band Analysis 251 20.12.1 Collecting a Spectrum of a Continuous Noise by Octave Band Analysis 252 20.12.2 Results 252 20.13 To Determine the Degree of Noise Exposure and the Actions to Take 254 Note 255 References and Further Reading 255 Chapter 21 Vibration 257 21.1 Introduction 257 21.2 Vibration 259 21.3 Occupational Exposure Limits 261 21.4 Risk Assessment 262 21.5 Measurements and Measurement Equipment 262 21.6 Hand–Arm Vibration Measurement Calculations 264 21.6.1 Reporting of Vibration Exposure Data 265 21.7 Control of Vibration 266 References and Further Reading 267 Chapter 22 Heat and Cold 269 22.1 Introduction 269 22.2 Heat Stress 272 22.3 Measurement Equipment 275 22.3.1 Dry Bulb Thermometers 275 22.3.2 Wet-bulb Thermometers 275 22.3.3 Air Speed 276 22.3.4 Globe Thermometer 276 22.3.5 Integrating WBGT Instruments 276 22.4 Personal Physiological Monitoring 277 22.5 Measurement of the Thermal Environment 279 22.6 Predicted Heat Strain Index 281 22.7 Risk Assessment Strategy 282 22.8 Control of Hot Environments 283 22.9 Thermal Comfort 285 22.10 Cold Environments 286 22.11 To Calculate the Wind Chill Factor 288 22.11.1 Procedure 288 References and Further Reading 289 Chapter 23 Lighting 290 23.1 Introduction 290 23.2 Lighting Standards 293 23.3 Equipment Available 293 23.4 Calibration 293 23.5 To Measure Lighting 294 23.5.1 Aim 294 23.5.2 Equipment Required 294 23.5.3 Method 295 23.5.4 Possible Problems 296 23.5.5 Results and Comparison with Guidance 297 23.5.6 Reporting 297 23.6 Control 298 References and Further Reading 299 Chapter 24 Ionising Radiation 301 24.1 Introduction 301 24.2 Ionising Radiation 302 24.3 Background Radiation 303 24.4 Basic Concepts and Quantities 304 24.5 Types of Radiation 306 24.6 Energy 307 24.7 Activity 307 24.8 Radiation Dose Units 308 24.8.1 Absorbed Dose and Dose Equivalent 308 24.8.2 To Calculate Dose Equivalent 309 24.8.3 Dose Rate 309 24.9 Dose Limits 310 24.10 Derived Limits 311 24.11 Procedures to Minimise Occupational Dose 311 24.12 Personal Dosimetry and Medical Surveillance 313 24.12.1 Monitoring of Ionising Radiation in Work Areas 314 24.12.2 Personal Monitoring for External Dose 316 24.12.3 Film Badge Dosimeter 317 24.12.3.1 Advantages of the Film Badge Dosimeter 317 24.12.3.2 Disadvantages 318 24.12.4 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter 318 24.12.4.1 Advantages Thermoluminescent Dosimeter 318 24.12.4.2 Disadvantages 318 24.12.5 Direct‐Reading Monitors 319 24.12.5.1 Disadvantages of Direct‐reading Monitors 319 24.12.6 Air Monitoring 319 References and Further Reading 320 Chapter 25 Non‐Ionising Radiation 321 25.1 Introduction 321 25.2 Ultraviolet Radiation 323 25.3 Visible and Infrared Radiation 325 25.4 Blue Light 326 25.5 Microwaves, Radiowaves and Low‐frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields 327 25.6 Lasers 329 References and Further Reading 330 Part 4 Control of Hazards 333 Chapter 26 Assessing the Effectiveness of Exposure Controls 335 26.1 Introduction 335 26.2 The Effectiveness of Control Measures 336 26.2.1 Elimination and Substitution 336 26.2.1.1 Case Study: Replacement of Trichloroethylene for Cleaning Textiles 336 26.2.2 Ventilation and Control Measures at Source 337 26.2.2.1 Case Study: Enclosure of Beryllium Processing 338 26.2.3 Personal Protective Equipment 339 26.2.4 Using Effectiveness Data 340 26.2.4.1 Case Study: Loading Pharmaceuticals into a Process Vessel 341 26.3 Measuring Exposure to Assess the Effectiveness of Controls 342 26.3.1 Case Study: Use of Push‐Pull Ventilation in Hand Soldering 342 References and Further Reading 344 Chapter 27 Assessing Local Ventilation Control Systems 345 27.1 Introduction 345 27.2 Air Pressure 346 27.2.1 Static Pressure (ps) 346 27.2.2 Velocity Pressure (pv) 347 27.2.3 Total Pressure (pt) 347 27.3 Measurement Equipment 347 27.3.1 Pressure‐Measuring Instruments 347 27.3.2 Air Velocity Measuring Instruments 349 27.3.2.1 Vane Anemometers 350 27.3.2.2 Heated Sensor Anemometers 351 27.3.2.3 Velocity Pressure Devices 352 27.3.2.4 Smoke Tube Kit 354 27.3.2.5 Calibration 355 27.3.2.6 Tyndall Beam 355 27.3.3 Barometric Pressure Instruments 355 27.4 Ventilation Measurement Records 355 27.5 Measurement of Air Flow in Ducts 359 27.5.1 Aim 359 27.5.2 Equipment Required 359 27.5.3 Method 360 27.5.4 Calculation 363 27.5.5 Example 364 27.5.6 Possible Problems 365 27.6 Measurement of Pressure in Ventilation Systems 366 27.6.1 Aim 366 27.6.2 Equipment Required 366 27.6.3 Method 366 27.6.4 Results 367 27.6.5 Possible Problems 368 27.7 To Measure the Face Velocity on a Booth, Hood or Fume Cupboard 368 27.7.1 Aim 368 27.7.2 Equipment Required 369 27.7.3 Method 369 27.7.4 Results 370 27.7.5 Possible Problems 370 References and Further Reading 370 Chapter 28 Personal Protective Equipment 372 28.1 Introduction 372 28.2 Components of An Effective PPE Programme 372 28.2.1 Assessment of Risks and Identification of Where Control is Required 373 28.2.2 Implement All Feasible Controls 373 28.2.3 Identify Who Needs Residual Protection 374 28.2.4 Inform Wearers of the Consequences of Exposure 374 28.2.5 Select PPE Adequate to Control Residual Exposure 374 28.2.5.1 Case Study 376 28.2.6 Involve Wearers in the PPE Selection Process 377 28.2.7 Match PPE to Each Individual Wearer 377 28.2.8 Carry Out Objective Fit‐Tests of RPE 378 28.2.9 Ensure That PPE Does not Exacerbate or Create Risks 378 28.2.10 Ensure PPE are Mutually Compatible 381 28.2.11 Train Wearers in the Correct Use of Their PPE 381 28.2.12 Supervise Wearers to Ensure Correct Use of PPE 382 28.2.13 Maintain PPE in Efficient and Hygienic Condition 383 28.2.14 Inspect PPE to Ensure it is Correctly Maintained 383 28.2.15 Provide Suitable Storage Facilities for PPE 383 28.2.16 Record Maintenance and Inspection Data 384 28.2.17 Monitor Programme to Ensure its Continuing Effectiveness 384 References and Further Reading 384 Part 5 The Future 387 Chapter 29 Monitoring for Hazards at Work in the Future 389 29.1 What the Future Holds for Monitoring Hazards at Work 389 References and Further Reading 393 Appendix: Survey checklists 395 Equipment Suppliers 403 Chemical Analytical Services 405 Index 407