Biofouling

List of Contributors xi Preface xv I Processes in Marine and Freshwater Biofouling i Larvae and Spores Chapter 1 Reproduction and Larvae/Spore Types 1 Jon N. Havenhand and Craig A. Styan Introduction 1 Some Terminology 2 Asexual Production of Propagules 3 Sexual Reproduction – Mechanisms Facilitating Fertilisation 5 Demographic Effects on Fertilisation Success – Allee Effects 7 Environmental Factors Affecting Fertilisation 8 Links Between Fertilisation and Subsequent Larval Attributes 8 Hatching and Development 9 Mobility and Survival of Larvae/Spores 10 Carry-over Effects 10 Conclusions 11 References 11 Chapter 2 Larval Supply and Dispersal 16 Christopher D. McQuaid and Karen Miller Introduction 16 The Significance of Scales of Larval Dispersal 16 Factors Influencing Dispersal Scales 18 Estimating Dispersal 21 Practical Consequences of Dispersal Scales 22 Conclusions 24 References 24 Chapter 3 Settlement and Behaviour of Marine Fouling Organisms 30 Gabrielle S. Prendergast Introduction 30 Cues 31 Planktonic Propagules 32 Inert Surface Encounter, Followed by (Active?) Attachment or Rejection 45 Behavioural Surface Encounter, Exploration and Attachment or Rejection 46 Conclusions 51 References 51 ii Fouling Community Processes Chapter 4 Succession on Hard Substrata 60 Stuart R. Jenkins and Gustavo M. Martins Introduction 60 Succession and the Role of Disturbance 60 Models of Succession 62 Extension of General Models 63 Life History Characteristics 64 Patch Characteristics 65 Mode of Colonisation 66 Seasonality 67 Variable Endpoints of Succession 67 Conclusions 68 References 69 Chapter 5 Patterns of Fouling on a Global Scale 73 João Canning-Clode and Martin Wahl Background 73 Is There a Latitudinal Cline in Fouling Organisms? 74 The Pattern Revealed by a Global Modular Fouling Experiment 76 Are Biofouling Communities Saturated? The Relationship Between Local and Regional Diversity 80 Discussion and Future Perspectives 81 Conclusions 83 Acknowledgements 83 References 83 Chapter 6 Biofouling Patterns with Depth 87 Phillip R. Cowie Introduction 87 Major Forcing Factors Determining Subtidal Sessile Assemblages 89 Patterns of Vertical Zonation on Natural Substratum Subtidal Communities 92 Patterns of Vertical Zonation in Biofouling Communities on Man-made Structures 94 Conclusions 95 References 96 iii Epibiosis and Anti-epibiosis Chapter 7 Epibiosis 100 Martin Wahl Sessile Mode of Life 100 Consequences of Epibioses 101 Distributional Patterns of Epibioses 103 Conclusions 106 References 106 Chapter 8 Natural Control of Fouling 109 Rocky de Nys, Jana Guenther and Maria J. Uriz Biofouling and Its Biological Consequences 109 Defence Mechanisms Against Biofouling 110 Conclusions 116 References 116 IV Introduction to Microbial Fouling 121 Sergey Dobretsov, Anna M. Romaní, David A. Spratt, Derren Ready and Jonathan Pratten Chapter 9 Marine Biofilms 123 Sergey Dobretsov Biofilm Development 123 Composition of Microbial Biofilms 125 Biofilm Dynamics 128 Signalling in Biofilms 129 Prokaryote–Eukaryote Interactions in Biofilms 130 Conclusions 132 Acknowledgements 133 Dedication 133 References 133 Chapter 10 Freshwater Biofilms 137 Anna M. Romaní Introduction 137 Structure and Architecture of Freshwater Biofilms 138 Biofilm Biomass 140 Biofilm Metabolism and Its Role on the Aquatic Food Web 143 Dynamic Structure–Function in Freshwater Biofilms 145 Conclusions 147 Acknowledgements 148 References 148 Chapter 11 Biofilms in Medicine 154 David A. Spratt, Derren Ready and Jonathan Pratten Introduction 154 Infection of the Head and Neck 155 Respiratory Tract 158 Gastrointestinal 159 Genitourinary 160 Surgical and Nosocomial Infections 161 Skin and Soft Tissues 162 Conclusions 164 References 164 II Biofouling Processes in Industry Chapter 12 Fouling on Artificial Substrata 170 Antonio Terlizzi and Marco Faimali The Influence of the Nature of Artificial Substrata on Fouling Assemblages 170 Environmental, Physical–Chemical and Biological Interactions During Fouling Colonisation of Artificial Substrata 171 Man-made Structures as Extra Habitat for Biofouling Organisms 176 Artificial Substrata for Biofouling Monitoring in Cooling Water Systems 177 Conclusions 179 References 179 Chapter 13 Paint and Coatings Technology for the Control of Marine Fouling 185 Alistair A. Finnie and David N. Williams Introduction 185 Biocidal Antifouling Paints 186 Non-biocidal Coatings 193 Paint Selection – Economic Considerations 199 Future Perspectives 200 Conclusions 201 References 201 Chapter 14 Fouling on Shipping: Data-Mining the World’s Largest Antifouling Archive 207 Jeremy C. Thomason Introduction 207 Digging the Data-mine 208 The First Nuggets 210 Conclusions 213 Acknowledgements 214 References 214 Chapter 15 Consequences of Fouling on Shipping 217 Robert Edyvean Introduction 217 Biofilms and Their Effect on the External Hull of Ships 218 The Effects of Biofilms on The Internal Operating Systems of Ships 219 The Effects of Biofilms in Water Systems 221 Biofilm Effects in Fuel and Hydraulic Systems 222 Other Areas of Biofilm Effects 223 Conclusions 223 References 223 Chapter 16 Consequences of Antifouling Coatings – The Chemist’s Perspective 226 Dickon Howell and Brigitte Behrends Introduction 226 History of AF Technologies 227 Constituents of Biocidal Coatings 227 Biocides in AF Paints 228 Distribution of Biocides in the Environment 237 Conclusions 238 References 239 Chapter 17 Consequences of Antifouling Systems – An Environmental Perspective 243 Cato C. ten Hallers-Tjabbes and Simon Walmsley Introduction 243 Antifouling Systems 244 Tributyltin – Behaviour and Fate in Natural Systems 244 Environmental Risks Associated with AFS and Alternative AFS 245 AFS Ecotoxicity 246 AFS in the Presence of Other Contaminants 246 Sensory–Behavioural Effects 247 Conclusions 248 References 248 Chapter 18 Fouling and Antifouling in Oil and Other Offshore Industries 252 Henry M. Page, Jenifer E. Dugan and Fred Piltz Introduction 252 The Biofouling Assemblage 253 Fouling Assemblage Development 258 Ecological Effects of the Fouling Assemblage 259 Novel and Exotic Species 260 Economic Value of the Biofouling Assemblage 261 Management of Biofouling and Economic Impacts 262 Conclusions 263 References 264 Chapter 19 Biofouling and Antifouling in Aquaculture 267 Simone Dürr and Douglas I. Watson The Cost of Fouling in Aquaculture 267 The Problems with Fouling in Aquaculture 268 Major Fouling Groups 271 Antifouling Strategies 277 Future Solutions 281 Conclusions 282 Acknowledgements 282 References 282 Chapter 20 Fouling and Antifouling in Other Industries – Power Stations, Desalination Plants – Drinking Water Supplies and Sensors 288 Peter Henderson Microfouling Organisms of Water Intakes and Cooling Systems 288 Macrofouling Organisms 289 Consequences of Fouling for Plant Operation and Safety 294 Control and Mitigation of Fouling 296 Consequences of Treatments to the Environment 299 Changing Biofouling Threats 302 Conclusions 303 References 303 Chapter 21 Regulation of Marine Antifouling in International and EC Law 306 Ilona Cheyne The International Law of the Sea 306 The International Convention on the Control of Harmful Antifouling Paints for Ships, 2001 309 Implementation of the International Antifouling Convention by the EC 311 Authorisation of Biocidal Substances 312 Conclusions 313 Notes 314 iii Research Methodologies and Future Directions Chapter 22 Techniques for the Quantification of Biofouling 319 Alan J. Butler, João Canning-Clode, Ashley D.M. Coutts, Phillip R. Cowie, Sergey Dobretsov, Simone Dürr, Marco Faimali, John A. Lewis, Henry M. Page, Jonathan Pratten, Derren Ready, Dan Rittschof, David A. Spratt, Antonio Terlizzi and Jeremy C. Thomason Vessel Hull 319 Steel Mariner Barge 327 References 329 Chapter 23 Biofouling and Climate Change 333 Elvira S. Poloczanska and Alan J. Butler Introduction 333 Recent and Projected Changes in the Ocean–Atmosphere System 333 Climate and Climate-Related Factors Regulating Biofouling Communities 334 Ecological Impacts of Climate Change Effects on Biofouling 338 Economic Impacts of Climate Change Effects on Biofouling 340 Environmental Impacts of Climate Change Effects on Biofouling 340 Conclusions 342 References 342 Chapter 24 Biofouling Invasions 348 John A. Lewis and Ashley D.M. Coutts Invasive Species 348 Vectors 349 The Translocation Process for Biofouling Organisms 349 Historical Translocations 351 Modern Translocations 353 Proposed Management Measures 356 Conclusions 357 References 358 Chapter 25 New Directions in Antifouling Technology 366 Dean C. Webster and Bret J. Chisholm Introduction 366 Biocidal Antifouling Coatings 367 Natural Antifoulants 370 Non-toxic Non-fouling Approaches 371 Conclusions 379 References 380 Chapter 26 Implications of International and European Regulatory Developments for Marine Antifouling 388 Ilona Cheyne The Introduction of New Antifouling Restrictions 388 Amendments to the ICAFS 388 Ballast Water Management 390 Other Relevant Policy Areas in EC Law 391 Conclusions 392 Notes 392 Chapter 27 Research on Practical Environmentally Benign Antifouling Coatings 396 Dan Rittschof Environmentally Benign Antifouling Coatings 396 Fouling and Fouling Control 397 Biofouling Management 399 The Antifouling Problem in a Nutshell 400 Control of Biofouling and Environmental Impacts 400 Practical Solutions 401 Considerations for a Novel Antifouling Coating 401 Coating Application and Removal 403 Governmental Oversight 404 Perspective 404 Theoretical Considerations for a Novel Antifouling Coating 404 Environmentally Benign Coatings 404 Commercialisation 405 Conclusions 406 References 406 Index 410 Colour plates appear between pages 332 and 333